Minggu, 31 Juli 2011

“Borobudur, the Biggest Buddhist Temple in the 9th Century”

“Borobudur, the Biggest Buddhist Temple in the 9th Century”
Who does not know Borobudur? This Buddhist temple has 1460 relief panels and 504 Buddha effigies in the complex. Millions of people longing to visit the buildings included in this World Wonder Heritages. Not surprisingly, since architecturally and functionally, as a place of worship, Borobudur is attractive. Borobudur was built by King Samaratungga, one of the kings of Old Mataram Kingdom, Dynasty dynasty descendants. Based Kayumwungan inscription, an Indonesian named Hudaya Kandahjaya revealed that Borobudur is a place of worship which was completed on 26 May 824, almost one hundred years since the early days was built. The name of Borobudur, as some people means a mountain having terraces (budhara), while the other says that Borobudur means monastery on the spot tinggi.Bangunan Borobudur punden shaped staircase consists of 10 levels. Height of 42 meters and 34.5 meters before it was renovated after the renovation because the lowest level was used as a drag. Six lowest level of a square and two upper circular form, and the highest level in the form of Buddhist stupa facing to the west. Each level represents the stages of human life. Corresponding schools of Mahayana Buddhism, every person who wants to reach the level of the Buddha should be through every level of life is. The base of Borobudur, called Kamadhatu, symbolizing human beings that are still bound by lust. Four levels above it called Rupadhatu symbolizing human beings that have set themselves free from lust but still tied to appearance and shape. At that level, a statue of Buddha placed open. Meanwhile, three levels above where the Buddhist stupa placed in the holes is called Arupadhatu, symbolizing human beings that have been free from lust, appearance, and shape. The top part is called Arupa symbolizes nirvana, where Buddha is residing. Each terrace has beautiful relief panels showing how skillful. Relief that will be read coherently when you walk clockwise (towards the left of the entrance of the temple). In the reliefs of Borobudur tells of a legendary story, Ramayana. In addition, there are relief panels describing the condition of society at that time. For example, relief of farmers' activity reflecting the advance of agriculture system and relief of sailing boat representing the advance of shipping at that time centered on Bergotta (Semarang). All relief panels in Borobudur temple reflect the Buddha's teachings. Hence, this temple functions as educating the media for people who want to learn Buddhism. YogYES invites you to surround each of the narrow passageways in Borobudur in order to understand the philosophy of Buddhism. Atisha, a Buddhist from India in the 10th century once visited this temple that was built 3 centuries before Angkor Wat in Cambodia and 4 centuries before the Grand Cathedrals in Europe. Thanks to visiting Borobudur and having the script of Serlingpa Buddhism (one of the King of Sriwijaya), Atisha was able to develop Buddhism. He became head Vikramasila monastery and taught Tibetans of practicing Dharma. Six manuscripts of Serlingpa was condensed into a core doctrine called "The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment" or better known by the name Bodhipathapradipa. One of the questions still unanswered about Borobudur is how the condition around the temple was built and why the temple was found in the buried. Some say Borobudur originally stood surrounded by swamp and then buried by the eruption of Merapi. Calcutta is essentially the inscription reads 'Amawa' means sea of milk. The word is then interpreted as the lava of Merapi. Some others say buried by cold lava of Merapi Borobudur. With all the grandeur and mystery that is, only natural that many people of all enter the world penjru Borobudur as a place to visit in his life. Besides enjoying the temple, you can walk around to the villages around Borobudur, such Karanganyar and Wanurejo to see the activities of local crafts. You can also go to the top watu Kendil to be able to see panoramic view from the top of Borobudur. What are you waiting? No need to worry about an earthquake May 27, 2006, because of Borobudur is not affected at all.

Nama kelompok:
 Ayu larasati
 Yulita patria wardhani tamora putri
 Yunia maharani utami
Class:
X.3

History of Indonesia


Indonesia (ɪndəˈniːʒə/ or /ˌɪndoʊˈniːziə/), officially the Republic of Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia), is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia comprises 13,466 islands and thirty three provinces. With over 238 million people, it is the world's fourth most populous country, and has the world's largest population of Muslims. Indonesia is a republic, with an elected legislature and president. The nation's capital city is Jakarta. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include Singapore, Philippines, Australia, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indonesia is a founding member of ASEAN and a member of the G-20 major economies. The Indonesian economy is the world's eighteenth largest economy by nominal GDP and fifteenth largest by purchasing power parity.

The Indonesian archipelago has become an important trade region since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, and Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished. Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Muslim traders brought Islam, and European powers brought Christianity and fought one another to monopolize trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after World War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a democratization process, and periods of rapid economic change.

Across its many islands, Indonesia consists of distinct ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups. The Javanese are the largest—and the politically dominant—ethnic group. Indonesia has developed a shared identity defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a majority Muslim population, and a history of colonialism including rebellion against it. Indonesia's national motto, "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika" ("Unity in Diversity" literally, "many, yet one"), articulates the diversity that shapes the country. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the world's second highest level of biodiversity. The country is richly endowed with natural resources, yet poverty remains widespread in contemporary Indonesia.


Fossilized remains of Homo erectus, popularly known as the "Java Man", suggest that the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited two million to 500,000 years ago. Homo sapiens reached the region by around 45,000 years ago. Austronesian peoples, who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to South East Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE, and as they spread through the archipelago, confined the native Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions. Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the 8th century BCE, allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the 1st century CE. Indonesia’s strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, including links with Indian kingdoms and China, which were established several centuries BCE. Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history.From the 7th century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it. Between the eighth and 10th centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's Borobudur and Mataram's Prambanan. The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada, its influence stretched over much of Indonesia.

Although Muslim traders first traveled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era, the earliest evidence of Islamized populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra. Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam, and it was the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java. The first regular contact between Europeans and the peoples of Indonesia began in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão, sought to monopolize the sources of nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb pepper in Maluku. Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalized colony.

For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous outside of coastal strongholds; only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries. Despite major internal political, social and sectarian divisions during the National Revolution, Indonesians, on the whole, found unity in their fight for independence. Japanese occupation during World War II ended Dutch rule, and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement. Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, Sukarno, an influential nationalist leader, declared independence and was appointed president. The Netherlands tried to reestablish their rule, and an armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally recognized Indonesian independence (with the exception of the Dutch territory of West New Guinea, which was incorporated into Indonesia following the 1962 New York Agreement, and the UN-mandated Act of Free Choice of 1969).
Sukarno moved Indonesia from democracy towards authoritarianism, and maintained his power base by balancing the opposing forces of the military and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI). An attempted coup on 30 September 1965 was countered by the army, who led a violent anti-communist purge, during which the PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed. Around 500,000 people are estimated to have been killed. The head of the military, General Suharto, out-maneuvered the politically weakened Sukarno, and was formally appointed president in March 1968. His New Order administration was supported by the US government, and encouraged foreign direct investment in Indonesia, which was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth. However, the authoritarian "New Order" was widely accused of corruption and suppression of political opposition.

Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the late 1990s Asian financial crisis. This increased popular discontent with the New Order and led to popular protest across the country. Suharto resigned on 21 May 1998.[40] In 1999, East Timor voted to secede from Indonesia, after a twenty-five-year military occupation that was marked by international condemnation of repression of the East Timorese. Since Suharto's resignation, a strengthening of democratic processes has included a regional autonomy program, and the first direct presidential election in 2004. Political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, and terrorism slowed progress, however, in the last five years the economy has performed strongly. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, sectarian discontent and violence has occurred. A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005



Group members :

- Desi Agustiani

- Dini Puji Wituti

- Karsah Mintarsih

- Ndayu Gustriana

class : X.3

Sabtu, 30 Juli 2011

ARTICLE AC MILAN

Article Ac Milan

AC Milan is an Italian football club. Based in Milan, they play in red-and-black stripes and black shorts, giving them the nickname rossoneri ("red-blacks"). The second most successful club in Italian soccer history, they won the Serie A 17 times and Coppa Italia five times.

The club was founded in 1899 as the Milan Cricket and Football Club by Alfred Edwards, a British expatriate. In honour of its origins, the club has retained the English spelling of its city's name, instead of changing it to the Italian Milano; it should be noted that the current Italian pronounciation is actually MEE-lahn.

The team's current stadium is the 85,700 seater Giuseppe Meazza, also known as the San Siro. The stadium is shared with Internazionale (also known as "Inter"), the other major football club in Milan. AC Milan supporters use "San Siro" to refer to the stadium because Meazza was a star player for Inter.

Historically, AC Milan (usually referred to as "Milan" in Italy) was supported by the city's working classes and trade unionists, while Inter was mainly supported by the more prosperous. However, in recent years, the clubs have seen a significant reversal in supporter bases. Milan is now owned by conservative media magnate and current Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi, while Inter is now owned by a centre-left businessman.

Famous players have included: Renzo De Vecchi, Cesare Maldini, Karl Heinz Schnellinger, Kurt Hamrin, Sandro Salvadore, Juan Alberto Schiaffino, Jose Altafini, Gunnar Gren, Ruud Gullit, Marco van Basten, Frank Rijkaard, Gunnar Nordahl, Nils Liedholm, Gianni Rivera, Luther Blissett, Franco Baresi, Giovanni Trapattoni, Angelo Sormani, Roberto Donadoni, George Weah, Demetrio Albertini, Paolo Di Canio, Roberto Baggio, Zvonimir Boban, Gianluigi Lentini, Carlo Ancelotti, Paolo Maldini, Alessandro Costacurta, Cafu, Andriy Shevchenko, Hern�n Crespo, Filippo Inzaghi, Jean-Pierre Papin, Dejan Savicevic, Ray Wilkins, Jimmy Greaves, Jaap Stam, Alessandro Nesta, Kaka.
AC Milan Honours, Trophies & Awards
• Italian League (Serie A): 17
o 1901, 1906, 1907, 1950-51, 1954-55, 1956-57, 1958-59, 1961-62, 1967-68, 1978-79, 1987-88, 1991-92, 1992-93, 1993-94, 1995-96, 1998-99, 2003-04
• European Cups: 6
o 1962-63, 1968-69, 1988-89, 1989-90, 1993-94, 2002-03
• Italian Cups: 5
o 1966-67, 1971-72, 1972-73, 1976-77, 2002-03
• Italian Super Cups: 5
o 1988, 1992, 1993, 1994, 2004
• Intercontinental Cups: 3
o 1969, 1989, 1990
• European Super Cups: 3
o 1989, 1990, 1994
• Cup Winners' Cups: 2
o 1967-68, 1972-73
• Latin Cup (It was the most important cup for club teams in Europe during the 40's and the 50's. It was played from 1949 to 1957 between the champions of France, Italy, Portugal, and Spain. After the introduction of the European Cups, it disappeared.)
o 1951, 1956
• Mitropa Cup
o 1981/82
Finals
• European Cup/Champions League
o 1957/58, 1992/93, 1994/95
• Cup Winners' Cup
o 1973/74
• Intercontinental Cup
o 1963, 1993, 1994, 2003
• European Super Cup
o 1973, 1993,
o Latin Cup
o 1953
• Italian Cups
o 1941/42, 1967/68, 1970/71, 1974/75, 1984/85, 1989/90, 1997/98


NAME :
 NOVIANTY SRIHARDADI
 NOVELIA
 MEGA TRIANA AGUSTIN
 ROMI FEBRIAN
CLASS : X.1

Biography of Khalil Gibran





Gibran Khalil Gibran was born on January 6, 1883, to the Maronite family of Gibran in Bsharri, a mountainous area in Northern Lebanon.

Lebanon was a Turkish province part of Greater Syria (Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine) and subjugated to Ottoman dominion, which granted the Mount Lebanon area autonomous rule. The people of Mount Lebanon had struggled for several years to gain independence from the Ottoman rule, a cause Gibran was later to adopt and become an active member in. The Mount Lebanon area was a troubled region, due to the various outside and foreign interferences that fostered religious hatred between the Christian, especially the Maronite sect, and Moslem populations. Later in his life, Gibran was to seek and unite the various religious sects, in a bid to abolish the religious snobbery, persecution and atrocities witnessed at his time. The Maronite sect, formed during the schism in the Byzantine church in the 5th century A.D., was made up of a group of Syrian Christians, who joined the monk St. Marun to lead their own sectarian thought.

His mother Kamila Rahmeh was thirty when she begot Gibran from her third husband Khalil Gibran, who proved to be an irresponsible husband leading the family to poverty. Gibran had a half-brother six years older than him called Peter and two younger sisters, Mariana and Sultana, whom he was deeply attached to throughout his life, along with his mother. Kamila’s family came from a prestigious religious background, which imbued the uneducated mother with a strong will and later on helped her raise up the family on her own in the U.S.

Growing up in the lush region of Bsharri, Gibran proved to be a solitary and pensive child who relished the natural surroundings of the cascading falls, the rugged cliffs and the neighboring green cedars, the beauty of which emerged as a dramatic and symbolic influence to his drawings and writings. Being laden with poverty, he did not receive any formal education or learning, which was limited to regular visits to a village priest who doctrined him with the essentials of religion and the Bible, alongside Syriac and Arabic languages. Recognizing Gibran’s inquisitive and alert nature, the priest began teaching him the rudiments of alphabet and language, opening up to Gibran the world of history, science, and language. At the age of ten, Gibran fell off a cliff, wounding his left shoulder, which remained weak for the rest of his life ever since this incident. To relocate the shoulder, his family strapped it to a cross and wrapped it up for forty days, a symbolic incident reminiscent of Christ’s wanderings in the wilderness and which remained etched in Gibran’s memory.

At the age of eight, Khalil Gibran, Gibran's father, was accused of tax evasion and was sent to prison as the Ottomon authorities confiscated the Gibrans’ property and left them homeless. The family went to live with relatives for a while; however, the strong-willed mother decided that the family should immigrate to the U.S., seeking a better life and following in suit to Gibran’s uncle who immigrated earlier. The father was released in 1894, but being an irresponsible head of the family he was undecided about immigration and remained behind in Lebanon.

On June 25, 1895, the Gibrans embarked on a voyage to the American shores of New York.

The Gibrans settled in Boston’s South End, which at the time hosted the second largest Syrian community in the U.S. following New York. The culturally diverse area felt familiar to Kamila, who was comforted by the familiar spoken Arabic, and the widespread Arab customs. Kamila, now the bread-earner of the family, began to work as a peddler on the impoverished streets of South End Boston. At the time, peddling was the major source of income for most Syrian immigrants, who were negatively portrayed due to their unconventional Arab ways and their supposed idleness.

Growing up into another impoverished period, Gibran was to recall the pain of the first few years, which left an indelible mark on his life and prompted him to reinvent his childhood memories, dispelling the filth, the poverty and the slurs. However, the work of charity institutions in the poor immigrant areas allowed the children of immigrants to attend public schools and keep them off the street, and Gibran was the only member of his family to pursue scholastic education. His sisters were not allowed to enter school, thwarted by Middle Eastern traditions as well as financial difficulties. Later on in his life, Gibran was to champion the cause of women’s emancipation and education and surround himself with strong-willed, intellectual and independent women.

In the school, a registration mistake altered his name forever by shortening it to Kahlil Gibran, which remained unchanged till the rest of his life despite repeated attempts at restoring his full name. Gibran entered school on September 30, 1895, merely two months after his arrival in the U.S. Having no formal education, he was placed in an ungraded class reserved for immigrant children, who had to learn English from scratch. Gibran caught the eye of his teachers with his sketches and drawings, a hobby he had started during his childhood in Lebanon.

With Kamila’s hard work, the family’s financial standing improved as her savings allowed Peter to set up a goods store, in which both of Gibran's sisters worked. The financial strains of the family and the distance from home brought the family together, with Kamila providing both financial and emotional support to her children, especially to her introverted son Gibran. During this difficult period, Gibran's remoteness from social life and his pensive nature were deepened, and Kamila was there to help him overcome his reservedness. The mother’s independence allowed him to mingle with Boston’s social life and explore its thriving world of art and literature.

Gibran's curiosity led him to the cultural side of Boston, which exposed him to the rich world of the theatre, Opera and artistic Galleries. Prodded by the cultural scenes around him and through his artistic drawings, Gibran caught the attention of his teachers at the public school, who saw an artistic future for the Syrian boy. They contacted Fred Holland Day, an artist and a supporter of artists who opened up Gibran’s cultural world and set him on the road to artistic fame.

Gibran met Fred Holland Day in 1896, and from then his road to recognition was reached through Day’s artistic unconventionality and his contacts in Boston’s artistic circles. Day introduced Gibran to Greek mythology, world literature, contemporary writings and photography, ever prodding the inquisitive Syrian to seek self-expression. Day’s liberal education and unconventional artistic exploration influenced Gibran, who was to follow Day’s unfettered adoption of the unusual for the sake of originality and self-actualization. Other than working on Gibran’s education, Day was instrumental in lifting his self-esteem, which had suffered under the immigrant treatment and poverty of the times. Not surprisingly, Gibran emerged as a fast learner, devouring everything handed over by Day, despite weak Arabic and English. Under Day’s tutelage, Gibran uttered his first religious beliefs, when he declared "I am no longer a Catholic: I am a pagan," after reading one book given by Day.

During one of Fred Holland Day’s art exhibitions, Gibran drew a sketch of a certain Miss Josephine Peabody, an unknown poet and writer who was to later become one of his failed love experiences; later on, Gibran was to propose marriage and be met with refusal, the first blow in a series of heartaches dealt to Gibran by the women he loved.

Continually encouraging Gibran to improve his drawings and sketches, Day was instrumental in getting Gibran’s images printed as cover designs for books in 1898. At the time, Gibran began to develop his own technique and style, encouraged by Day’s enthusiasm and support. Gradually, Gibran entered the Bostonian circles and his artistic talents brought him fame at an early age. However, his family decided that early success could cause him future problems, and with Gibran’s approval, the young artist went back to Lebanon to finish his education and learn Arabic.

In 1898, Gibran arrived in Beirut speaking poor English and even little Arabic; he could speak Arabic fluently, but not read nor write it. To improve his Arabic, Gibran chose to enroll in the school Madrasat-al-Hikmah, a Maronite-founded school which offered a nationalistic curriculum partial to church writings, history and liturgy. Gibran’s strong-willed nature refused to abide by the parochial curriculum, demanding an individual curriculum catering to his educational needs and aimed at a college level, a gesture indicative of Gibran’s rebellious and individualistic nature; his arrogance bordered on heresy. Nonetheless, the school acquiesced to his request, editing course material to Gibran's liking. He chose to immerse himself in the Arabic-language bible, intrigued by its style and writing, features of which echo in his various works. As a student, Gibran left a great impression on his teachers and fellow students, who were impressed with his outlandish and individualistic behavior, self-confidence, and his unconventional long hair. His Arabic teacher saw in him "a loving but controlled heart, an impetuous soul, a rebellious mind, an eye mocking everything it sees". However, the school’s strict and disciplined atmosphere was not to Gibran’s liking, who flagrantly flouted religious duties, skipped classes and drew sketches on books. At the school, Gibran met Joseph Hawaiik, with whom he started a magazine called al-Manarah (the Beacon), both editing while Gibran illustrated.

Meanwhile, Josephine Peabody, the twenty-four year old Bostonian beauty who caught Gibran’s attention during one of Day’s exhibitions, was intrigued by the young Syrian artist who dedicated a sketch to her, and began corresponding with Gibran throughout his stay in Lebanon. Soon, he became romantically involved with Josephine, and they kept exchanging letters until the relationship fell apart, following the rebuffal of Gibran’s marriage proposal and Josephine’s eventual marriage in 1906.

Gibran finished college in 1902, learning Arabic and French and excelling in his studies, especially poetry. Meanwhile, his relationship with his father became strained over Gibran’s advanced erudition, driving him to move in with his cousin and to live an impoverished life he detested and was ashamed of until the rest of his life. The poverty in Lebanon was compounded with news of illness striking his family, with his half-brother's consumption, his sister Sultana’s intestinal trouble and his mother’s developing cancer. Upon receiving news of Sultana’s dire illness, Gibran left Lebanon in March of 1902.

To his misfortune, Gibran arrived too late; Sultana died at the age of fourteen on April 4th 1902, the first in a series of three family deaths which will fall upon him in the coming months. Gibran was very fond of his sisters and of his family as a whole. At the time of mourning, both Day and Josephine provided distractions for him, in form of artistic shows and meetings at Boston’s artistic circles. Gibran’s artistic talents and unique behavior had captured earlier the interest of the Bostonian society, which welcomed this foreign talent into their artistic circles.

Josephine, who slowly captured Gibran’s heart, became an inflectional person in his life, the Bostonian poet constantly referring to Gibran as ‘her young prophet’. Greatly intrigued by his oriental background, Josephine was charmed by Gibran’s vividly illustrated correspondences and conversations. Josephine’s care and attention were the inspiration behind his book The Prophet, the title of which is based on an eleven-stanza poem Joesphine wrote in December of 1902 describing Gibran’s life in Bsharri as she envisaged it. Later on, when Gibran was to publish The Prophet, he dedicated it to Josephine, whose care and tenderness helped him advance his career.

Illness struck again when his mother underwent an operation in February to remove a cancerous tumor. To compound his misery, Gibran was forced to take on the family business and run the goods store, which was abandoned by his half-brother Peter to pursue his fortune in Cuba. This new burden weighed on Gibran’s spirit, depriving him from dedicating his time to artistic pursuits. During this time, Gibran tried to shy away from the house, to escape the atmosphere of death, poverty and illness. In the following month, Peter returned to Boston from Cuba fatally sick only to die days later on March 12 of consumption. His mother’s cancer continued to spread and she died later that year on June 28, a scene which left Gibran fainting and foaming blood from the mouth.

Following the three family deaths, Gibran sold out the family business and began immersing himself in improving both his Arabic and English writings, a twin task which he was to pursue for the rest of his life. Meanwhile, Day and Josephine were helping him launch his debut art exhibition, which was to feature his allegorical and symbolic charcoal drawings that so fascinated Boston’s society. The exhibition opened on May 3, 1904, and proved a success with the critics. However, the exhibition’s significance lay elsewhere. Josephine, through her future husband, invited a schoolmistress called Mary Haskell to examine Gibran’s drawings. This introduction to the schoolmistress was to mark the beginning of a lifetime relationship, which would greatly influence Gibran’s writing career. Gibran had sought Josephine’s opinion about his Arabic writings, translating them into English. With the language barrier, Josephine could only provide criticism over ideas and thoughts, leaving Gibran alone to tackle his linguistic problems. Josephine’s role was to be taken over by Mary Haskell.

Mary Haskell, who was thirty at the time and ten years older than Gibran, will go on to finance Gibran’s artistic development and encourage him to become the artist that he aspired to be. As a school head mistress, Haskell was an educated, strong-willed and independent woman and an active champion of women’s liberation, who was set apart to Josephine Peabody’s romantic nature. Mary was the reason behind Gibran’s decision to explore writing in English, as she persuaded Gibran to refrain from translating his Arabic works to English and concentrate instead on writing in English directly. Mary’s collaboration and editing of his various English works polished Gibran’s work, most of which first underwent Mary’s editing before going to the publishers. She would spend hours with Gibran, going over his wording, correcting his mistakes and suggesting new ideas to his writings. She even attempted learning Arabic to gain a better grasp of Gibran’s language and his thoughts.

The significance of Mary’s relationship with Gibran is revealed through her diaries, in which she recorded Gibran’s artistic development, their personal and intellectual conversations and his innermost thoughts for nearly seventeen years and a half. These recordings have provided critics with valuable insight into Gibran’s personal thoughts and ideas, which he kept away from the public eye.

In 1904, Gibran started to contribute articles to the Arabic-speaking émigré newspaper called Al-Mouhajer (The Emigrant), marking his first published written work. His first publication was called ‘Vision’, a romantic essay that portrayed a caged bird amid an abundance of symbolism. Despite spending four years in Lebanon learning Arabic, Gibran’s written Arabic left something to be desired. To master Arabic, Gibran relied on his ear for capturing traditional vocabulary, depending heavily on the Arabic stories narrated in his hometown of Bsharri. Hence his Arabic writing had a colloquial feel to it, which was comfortable to his audiences. According to Gibran, rules of language were meant to be broken and he went on to advocate Arab émigré writers to break out of tradition and seek an individual style. Throughout his life, Gibran’s Arabic writings did not receive the critical acclaim his English books had, leading him later on to concentrate on his English writings and abandon the cause of improving his Arabic style.

Gibran’s first Arabic written work came out in 1905 with the publication of Nubthah fi Fan Al-Musiqa (Music), a book inspired by his brother’s 'oud playing and Day’s several invitations to the Opera. During that year, Gibran started a column in Al-Mohajer called ‘Tears and Laughter’’, which was to form the basis of his book A Tear and a Smile. While writing in Al-Mohajer, a certain Arabic émigré writer called Ameen Rihani, wrote to the magazine lauding Gibran’s article which attacked contemporary Arab writers for imitating traditional writers and using poetry for financial gain. Rihani was to become an important Arabic writer and a friend of Gibran’s, whom he later left for the life-long friendship of Mikhail Naimy. At the time, Gibran published several Arabic poems and wrote in newspapers, about various subjects relating to love, truth, beauty, death, good and evil. Most of his writings had a romantic edge to them, with bitter and ironic tones.

In 1906, Gibran published his second Arabic book called Arayis Al-Muruj (The Nymphs of the Valley), a collection of three allegories which take place in Northern Lebanon. The allegories- ‘Martha’, ‘Yuhanna the Mad’, and ‘Dust of Ages and the Eternal Fire’- dealt with issues relating to prostitution, religious persecution, reincarnation and pre-ordained love. The allegories were heavily influenced by the stories he heard back in Bsharri and his own fascination with the Bible, the mystical, and the nature of love. Gibran was to return to the subject of madness in his English book ‘The Madman,’ whose beginnings can be traced to Gibran’s early Arabic writings. What characterized Gibran’s early Arabic publications was the use of the ironic, the realism of the stories, the portrayal of second-class citizens and the anti-religious tone, all of which contrasted with the formalistic and traditional Arabic writings.

Gibran published his third Arabic book Al-Arwah Al-Mutamarridah (Spirits Rebellious) in March of 1908, a collection of four narrative writings based on his writing in Al-Mouhajer. The book dealt with social issues in Lebanon, portraying a married woman’s emancipation from her husband, a heretic’s call for freedom, a bride’s escape from an unwanted marriage through death and the brutal injustices of 19th century Lebanese feudal lords. These writings received strong criticism from the clergy for their bold ideas, their negative portrayal of clergymen and their encouragement of women’s liberation. Gibran was to later recall to Mary the dark period in which Spirits Rebellious was written, during a time when he was haunted by death, illness and loss of love. The anti-clerical content of the book threatened Gibran with excommunication from the church, with the book being censored by the Syrian government.

During one of Gibran's art exhibitions in 1914, an American architect, Albert Pinkam Ryder, paid an unexpected visit to the exhibition, leaving an impression on Gibran who decided to write an English poem in his honor. The poem, which was first edited by Mary, became Gibran’s first English publication, when it went out into print in January 1915.

Meanwhile, Gibran became more actively involved in the politics of the day, especially with the onset of World War I. To Gibran, the war suggested hope of liberating Ottoman-ruled Syria, through a united Arab military front, aided by a general Allied attack. He called on both Muslim and Christian sides to unite their forces against the oppressive Ottoman hegemony. In fact, Gibran fantasized about becoming a fighter and a romantic political hero, who is able to lead his country to liberation. When he actually suggested to Mary going over to Lebanon to fill a post of fighter, she adamantly refused.

In 1915, the pain he had suffered in his shoulder when he was young began to come back, and he underwent electrical treatment on his left shoulder, which had remained weak and in quasi-paralyzed state following the childhood accident. During the war years, Gibran went into a depression that distracted his thoughts and debilitated his health. Despite his active and widespread writings about the Arab uprising against the Ottomans, Giban felt helpless, contributing whatever money he spared to his starving Syria. To distract himself from war thoughts, Gibran tried to seek further recognition in New York, boosting his social life and joining in 1916 the literary magazine The Seven Arts. Gibran prided himself in being the first immigrant to join the board of this magazine, which reflected Gibran’s literary style. At the time, Gibran’s presence began to be demanded in literary circles, who craved to hear recitations from his books and writings.

By 1918, Gibran began to tell Mary of an Arabic work he had been working on which he called ‘my island man,’ the seeds of his most famous book The Prophet. Based on a Promethean man’s exile to an island, The Prophet evoked the journey of the banished man called Al Mustafa, or the Chosen One. In her diary, Mary recounted Gibran’s musings about the book, which he later called ‘the first book in my career –my first real book, my ripened fruit." Soon Gibran added to the work the title of the Commonwealth, a separate work he had attached to the story of Al Mustafa. Gibran was to later link the seeds of The Prophet to an Arabic work he did when he was sixteen years old, where a man at an inn discusses with the rest of the attendants various subjects. However, Gibran still worried about his English writing and he sought Mary’s advice constantly. Gibran had always been fascinated by the language of the Syriac Bible, which reflected Gibran’s views on the creation of ‘an absolute language’, a task he tried to achieve through his various English writings, through the creation of a unified universal style.

Mary was crucial to the development of The Prophet, for she advised Gibran to adopt the English language for this book. Gibran was further encouraged to pursue writing in English following the attention given to his soon-to-be-published book The Madman. The conversation Gibran had with Mary over the issues of marriage, life, death, love…infiltrated his chapters in The Prophet and various other works. However, Mary was against the title of The Prophet, which Gibran came up with in 1919, preferring the title ‘The Counsels,’ the name which she continued to use after the publication of the book. By the fall of 1918, Gibran was preparing to publish his first English book, and another Arabic poem called ‘Al-Mawakib’ (The Processions), his first serious attempt at writing a traditional Arabic poem with rhyme and meter.

Gibran's first English book The Madman came out in 1918 and received good reviews from the local press, who compared him to the Indian writer Tagore, famous for bridging the gap between East and West, and the English poet William Blake. The Madman, a collection of parables which was illustrated by Gibran, revealed the influence of Nietzsche, Jung and Tagore. Following the success of The Madman, Gibran’s popularity began to soar and gradually Gibran started losing touch with his old acquaintances, Day, Josephine, and now he dissolved his relationship with Rihani. Gibran relished the aura of mystery which he evoked among people, given his undisclosed accounts of his oriental background and his personal reserve.

In 1919, Gibran published his Arabic poem ‘Al-Mawakib’, which received little success from the Arab press. During the same year, Gibran joined the board of yet another local magazine Fatat Boston, to which he contributed several Arabic articles. Throughout his life, Gibran joined societies and magazines such as Al-Mouhajer, Al-Funnon, The Golden Links Society and Fatat-Boston, in order to create a mouthpiece for avant-garde Arabic writing and unite Arabic literature abroad. However, Gibran’s success as an Arabic writer remained limited. Ironically, his Arabic language was still not up to standards and received little success in the Arabic press.

In Fatat-Boston, Gibran developed a close relationship with an Arab immigrant writer Mikhail Naimy, whom he had met earlier in 1914. Naimy, a critical thinker at the time, was among the first Arab writers to acknowledge Gibran’s efforts at advancing the Arab language, and correctly making use of Arab customs and background. He treated Gibran’s The Broken Wings as an example of the universal language of literature, pointing out that Selma Karameh could have easily come from a Russian, English or Italian background. However, following Gibran’s death, Naimy immortalized Gibran, replacing the man with a godly image.

With Naimy, Gibran formed in April of 1911 a ten-member Arab émigré organization called Arrabitah Al-Qalamyiah, which promoted the publication of Arab writings and the transmission of world literature. Throughout its life, Arrabitah was led by Gibran’s call for greater artistic freedom, ever encouraging writers to break the rules and seek individual styles. During the time, Gibran’s involvement in his Arabic writings distracted him from completing The Prophet for a while. Moreover, Gibran vacillated between resuming work on The Prophet or embarking on a lecture tour, as his spreading popularity demanded more artistic presence from him. However, he continued to view himself as a spokesman of both the Arab and English worlds, a role whose difficulty he admitted.

Meanwhile, Gibran's political ideas were incensing local politicians in Syria, who reacted against his article which stated ‘You have your Lebanon and I have my Lebanon.’ Gibran disapproved of the way the Syrian territories were being managed, and he wrote extensively on the identity of the emerging Arab countries, as the Greater Syria region began to be divided into Lebanon, Palestine and Syria. On the makeup of emerging countries, Gibran called on politicians to adopt the positive aspects of the Western culture and refrain from importing the surface values of guns and clothes. His political thought sooner gave way to a general view on the cultural makeup of countries and the way citizens ought to lead their lives.

By 1920, nearly three-quarters of The Prophet was done while Gibran’s Arab writings continued to occupy his time. In a poignant letter written to Mary, Gibran confessed that he has resolved the identity problem and has balanced the East and West influences, admitting that "I know now that I am a part of the whole -- a fragment of a jar.… Now I've found out where I fit, and in a way I am the jar -- and the jar is I."

In 1922, Gibran started to complain about heart trouble, which was later attributed to his nervous psychological state, and he personally admitted: "But my greatest pain is not physical. There’s something big in me…. I've always known it and I can’t get it out. It’s a silent greater self, sitting watching a smaller somebody in me do all sorts of things.’’ With the near compellation of work on The Prophet, Mary and Gibran acknowledged Nietzsche’s great influence on the book, which is reminiscent of Nietzsche’s Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Mary had advised Gibran about the style of The Prophet, covering issues such as the use of capitalization, the use of punctuation marks and the form of paragraphs. Gibran had insisted that he wanted his paragraphs to remain short, almost becoming one lines. Mary had always pointed out that Gibran was a man of few words, who limited his letters to a minimum of words.

A few months before the publication of The Prophet, Gibran summarizeed the book to Mary: "The whole Prophet is saying one thing: ‘you are far far greater than you know -- and all is well.'

By 1923, Gibran had a well-established reputation in the Arab world through his Arabic articles, which he contributed to the various local and émigré Arabic newspapers. During this time, Gibran was gradually depending less on Mary as a financier and editor. He had agreed earlier with Mary to pay off his loans by sending her several of his paintings, an agreement which settled down their quarrels over money. And as Gibran's confidence in his English writings grew, his reliance on Mary's opinion dwindled. However, Mary’s face remained an inspiration in his illustrations, for soon Gibran will decide to restrict his paintings to book illustrations. The Prophet finally came into print in October of 1923, with a modest success in the U.S.

By 1923, Gibran had developed a close correspondence with an Arab writer, May Ziadeh. Their acceptance began in 1912, when she wrote to Gibran recalling to him how moved she was with the story of Selma Karameh in The Broken Wings.

May, an intellectual writer and an active proponent of women’s emancipation, was born in Palestine where she received classical education in a convent school. In 1908 she had moved to Cairo where her father started a newspaper. Similar to Gibran, May was fluent in English, Arabic and French, and in 1911 she published her poems under the pseudonym Isis Copia. May found The Broken Wings too liberal for her own tastes, but the subject of women’s rights occupied her until the rest of her life and was a common passion between her and Gibran. Later on, May became a champion of Gibran’s writings and came to replace Mary’s role as an editor and conversant over the coming years. By 1921, Gibran had received her picture and they were to continue corresponding until the end of his life.

During the twenties, Gibran continued to be active in the political arena, writing extensively on the issue of culture and society and the need of the emerging Arab countries to transport the positive sides of Western culture. Gibran’s writings had remained controversial in his home country, especially with his liberal views on the Church and clergy. As a writer, Gibran relished controversy, and his writings reflected this spirit. His limited success in the Arab world drove Gibran to abandon the cause of gaining acceptance as an Arabic writer and he concentrated his efforts instead on writing in English. Slowly, Gibran was getting to grips with his writing, creating a style of language, as he revealed to Mary that he wished to write small unified books, which could be read in one sitting and carried in one’s pocket.

Mary's role in Gibran's writing career was gradually dwindling, but she came to his rescue when he made some bad investments. Mary had always handled Gibran’s financial affairs, ever present to extricate him from his bad financial keeping. However, Mary was about to make her life decision in 1923 by deciding to move into the house of a Southern landowner, to become his future wife in May of 1926. Gibran helped her reach this decision, which slightly clouded their relationship. However, Gibran continued to confide in Mary, and he told her about the second and third parts of The Prophet which he intended to write. The second part was to be called The Garden of the Prophet and it would recount the time the prophet spent in the garden on the island talking to his followers. The third part would be called The Death of the Prophet and it would describe the prophet’s return from the island and how he is imprisoned and freed only to be stoned to death in the market place. Gibran’s project was never to be completed, due to the deterioration of his health and his preoccupation with writing his longest English book, Jesus, The Son of Man.

As Mary slipped slowly out of his life, Gibran hired a new assistant Henrietta Breckenridge, who later played an important role following his death. She organized his works, helped him edit his writings and managed his studio for him. By 1926, Gibran had become a well-known international figure, a stance which was to his liking. Seeking a greater cosmopolitan exposure, Gibran began in 1926 to contribute articles to the quarterly journal The New Orient, which had an international approach encouraging the East and West to meet. At the time, he had started working on a new English work, Lazarus and His Beloved, which was based on an earlier Arabic work. This book was a dramatic collection of four poems recounting the Bible story of Lazarus, his quest for his soul and his eventual meeting of his soul mate.

In May of 1926, Mary married the Southern Landowner Florance Minis. At the time, Mary’s journals reveal Gibran’s perception with the writing of Jesus, The Son of Man. Writing the story of Jesus had been a lifetime ambition, especially the attempt at portraying Jesus as no one else has done before. Gibran had traced Jesus’ life from Syria to Palestine, never sparing a book that recounted his life journey. To Gibran, Jesus appeared as human acting in natural surroundings and he often had dreams about meeting his ideal character in the natural scenery of Bsharri. Gibran’s imagination was further fueled by the native stories he had heard in Lebanon about Jesus’ life and acts. Soon, by January of 1927 Mary was editing the book, for Gibran still relied on Mary’s editing before sending his works to print.

By 1928, Gibran’s health began to deteriorate, and the pain in his body due to his nervous state was on the increase, driving Gibran to seek relief in alcohol. Soon Gibran’s excess drinking turned him into an alcoholic at the height of the prohibition period in the U.S. That same year, Gibran was already thinking of the post-life and he began inquiring about purchasing a monastery in Bsharri, which was owned by Christian Carmelites. In November of 1928, Jesus, Son of Man was published and received good reviews from the local press, who delighted in Gibran’s treatment of Jesus, the Son of Man. By that time, the artistic circles thought it was high time Gibran was honored; by 1929 every possible society sought to give him a tribute. In honor of his literary success, a special anthology of Gibran’s early works was issued by Arrabitah under the title As-Sanabil.

Gibran’s mental health, however, and his alcohol addiction drove him in one evening to burst out crying, lamenting the weakness of his mature works. ‘I have lost my original creative power,’ he lamented to an audience during a reading of one of his mature works. By 1929, doctors were able to trace Gibran’s physical ailment to the enlargement of his livers. To avoid the issue of illness, Gibran ignored all medical care, relying instead on heavy drinking. To distract himself, Gibran turned to an old work about three Earth gods written in 1911. This new book recounts the story of three earth gods who watch the drama of a couple falling in love. Mary edited the book which went into print in mid-March of 1930.

By 1930, Gibran’s excessive drinking to escape the pain in his liver aggravated his disease, and hopes of finishing the second part of The Prophet, The Garden of the Prophet, dwindled. Gibran revealed to Mary his plans of building a library in Bsharri and soon he drew the last copy of his will. To his pen-pal May Ziadeh, Gibran revealed the fear of death as he admitted, ‘I am, May, a small volcano whose opening has been closed.'

On April 10th 1931, Gibran died at the age of forty-eight in a New York hospital, as the spreading cancer in his liver left him unconscious. The New York streets staged a two-day vigil for Gibran’s honor, whose death was mourned in the U.S. and Lebanon. His will left large amounts of money to his country, since he wanted his Syrian citizens to remain in their country and develop it rather than immigrate. Mary, Mariana and Henrietta all attended to Gibran’s studio, organizing his works, sorting out books, illustrations and drawings. To fulfill Gibran’s dream, Marianna and Mary travelled in July of 1931 to Lebanon to bury Gibran in his hometown of Bsharri. The citizens of Lebanon received his coffin with celebration rather than mourning, rejoicing his homecoming, for in death Gibran’s popularity increased. Upon Gibran’s return, The Lebanese Minister of Arts opened the coffins and honored his body with a decoration of Fine Arts. Meanwhile, Marianna and Mary started negotiating the purchase of the Carmelite monastery Gibran wished to obtain. By January of 1932, the Mar Sarkis monastery was bought and Gibran moved to his final resting-place. Upon Mary’s suggestion, his belongings, the books he read, and some of his works and illustrations were later shipped to provide a local collection in the monastery, which turned into a Gibran museum.

Name:
1. FATHURROHMAN
2. REGITA
3. LIZA FEBRINA NURYASIN
4. DESI GLORYA MESACH
CLASS X.1

all about LADY GAGA

Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta (born March 28, 1986), better known by her stage name Lady Gaga, is an American pop singer-songwriter. After enrolling at New York University's Tisch School of the Arts in 2003 and later performing in the rock music scene of New York City's Lower East Side, she signed with Streamline Records, an imprint of Interscope Records. During her early time at Interscope, she worked as a songwriter for fellow label artists and captured the attention of recording artist Akon who, recognizing her vocal abilities, signed her to his own label, Kon Live Distribution.
Gaga came to prominence following the release of her debut studio album The Fame (2008), which was a critical and commercial success and achieved international popularity with the singles "Just Dance" and "Poker Face". The album reached number one on the record charts of six countries, topped the Billboard Dance/Electronic Albums chart while simultaneously peaking at number two on the Billboard 200 chart in the United States and accomplished positions within the top ten worldwide. Achieving similar worldwide success, The Fame Monster (2009), its follow-up, produced a further three global chart-topping singles "Bad Romance", "Telephone" and "Alejandro" and allowed her to embark on her second global concert tour, The Monster Ball Tour, just months after having finished her first, The Fame Ball Tour. Her second studio album Born This Way (2011) topped the charts in all major musical markets after the arrival of its singles "Born This Way", "Judas" and "The Edge of Glory" – the first-mentioned achieved the number-one spot in countries worldwide and was the fastest-selling single in the history of iTunes, selling one million copies in five days.[3]
Inspired by glam rock singers like David Bowie and Freddie Mercury, as well as dance-pop artists such as Madonna and Michael Jackson, Gaga is well-recognized for her outré and ever-changing sense of style in music, in fashion, in performance and in her music videos. Her contributions to the music industry have accrued her numerous achievements including five Grammy Awards, among twelve nominations; two Guinness World Records;[4] and the estimated sale of more than 22 million albums and 69 million singles worldwide, making her one of the best-selling music artists worldwide.[5] Billboard named her the Artist of the Year in 2010,[6] ranking her as the 73rd Artist of the 2000s decade.[7] Gaga has been included in Time magazine's annual Time 100 list of the most influential people in the world as well as being listed in a number of Forbes' annual lists.[8]

nama kelompok : nindya kurniasari , rian eka putra ,bayang eka purnama , shelvia bilqis
Twilight
Bella Swan has just moved from Phoenix, Arizona the majority of hot bercuaca to Forks, Washington the majority of the rainy weather to stay with her father, Charlie, after his mother, Renée, was married and lived with her new husband, Phil, a baseball player. After moving to Forks, Bella finally drawn to a mysterious, handsome young man, who is a biology classmate, Edward Cullen, who turns out to be a vegetarian vampire (vampires drinking the blood of animals, not humans). Edward has the ability as well as the other vampires (strong, fast, when exposed to direct sun shining and the body at any given moment can change the color of his eyes) besides Edward also has a talent to be able to read people's minds lain.tapi he could not read minds bella . At first, Edward tried to stay away from Bella because Edward always feel tempted if the smell of Bella's blood. However, over time, Edward finally able to overcome these problems and then they fell in love with each other, which makes the school to talk about them. At one point, Bella Cullen family are invited to look at playing baseball. Unexpectedly, suddenly there came a group of nomadic vampires who consist of James (vampire with a flair track), Victoria (the vampire with the instinct to flee incredible great and is a partner of James), and Laurent. I met with Bella, James has begun to Bella's blood. All family members unite to save Bella Cullen. Bella escaped to Phoenix, Arizona with Alice (the vampire with a talent to see the future) and Jasper (the vampire with a flair and control the feelings surrounding a pair of Alice). When fled to Phoenix, Bella was framed by James. Fortunately, Edward and his family soon realizes the loss of Bella and immediately went to go save Bella. Edward arrived just in time and managed to save Bella, after which they immediately return to Forks and attend school prom be held by them.


New Moon
Edward and his family leave Forks because Edward believes that they can put Bella in bahaya.Edward gave the reason that he does not love Bella anymore and hope that she forgot her love for Edward. Bella falls into a deep depression, until he finally found a new friend who is a werewolf, Jacob Black. Werewolf Jacob and others of his tribe must protect Bella from Victoria, a vampire who seeks revenge by the death of his partner, James, with trying to kill Bella, Edward Cullen are couples who have killed their partners. Due to a misunderstanding, Edward thought Bella had died from suicide (Bella jumping off a cliff for pleasure). Edward decided to follow Bella (Edward once said that he could not live if bella does not exist) with the request that he be killed by family Voltury which is the judge in the vampire world, but he is stopped by Bella and Alice who followed Edward to Voltera, Italy. They were forced to face the clan voltury (Aro, Marcus, Caius), Voltury upset because Bella knew too much about the life of a vampire while she herself is a very tempting food for the vampires. Thanks to the talent Alice sees that Bella will become like them in the future, they could be released. But Voltury will immediately check the existence of Bella as a vampire, if not the whole Cullen family was threatened dihukum.Bella (which since going out with Edward hoping transformed into a vampire) was menyanggupinya by voting for approval of the Cullen family (who have returned to Forks).
Eclipse
Victoria, a vampire who grudge against Bella was roaming the Forks to find loopholes to kill Bella. He was an army of "a new vampire" to help him battle the Cullen family and kill Bella. Meanwhile, Bella must choose between her relationship with Edward and her friendship with Jacob (because it turns out well in bella jacob love). The Cullens and the werewolves Jacob was forced to work together to destroy the vampires of new artificial victoria.Sehingga they successfully destroy Victoria and pasukkannya. Jacob was angry to know that Bella's choice to decide to vampir.Dia trying to convince bella that Bella loved it too although not as much as his edward.namun bella him realize that bella will not be able to live without edward side. reluctantly he finally gave up with Bella and Edward's relationship for a while he went away from his bella.
Breaking Dawn
Bella and Edward get married, but their honeymoon is cut short by Bella knew that she was pregnant. Her pregnancy went very quickly and make Bella becomes weak. He nearly died when her daughter gave birth to a half human and half vampire, Renesmee (taken from the name of Renee and Esme), but Edward injects venom directly into the heart so that Bella turned into a vampire. Irina, a vampire from the Denali clan accidentally see Renesmee and Jacob when he was in Forks. Then he thought Renesmee as an "immortal child" - children created by vampires. (In the world of vampires, vampire creation of children is prohibited in order to maintain their confidentiality). Irina then report the matter directly to the Klan Volturi. Feel anxious, even Cullens gather vampire witnesses who can verify that is not "immortal child". Thanks to the appeal that makes all the vampires Renesmee captivated and supported by its ability to show all that he experienced just by touching, then they (the witnesses) were understood and would support the Cullen family. In addition, some of them are willing to fight in the Cullen if necessary. Alice that go along with Jasper went back in time to start attacking the Volturi Clan Cullen family and witnesses. He brings a kind of living proof of the existence of vampires Renesmee. At the same time, the strength as a shield Bella Cullen is a helper group for fending off any attacks launched by Jane and Alec. With living proof that the Cullen family was released and peaceful life for ever.


In this novel point of view had to switch to Jacob's point of view, which tells how the life of Jacob when Bella accompany the dying and how he's eager to kill Renesmee think Jacob has been killed Bella, but eventually even Jacob loves Renesmee and protect it fiercely.

Kelompok   :
*    Fio Junio Irawan
*    Indah Rahmawati
*    Nandini Anggraini
*    Selvia Meisita

Jumat, 29 Juli 2011

Articles NIELS BOHR

Niels Bohr

Niels Bohr


Born Niels Henrik David Bohr
7 October 1885
Copenhagen, Denmark

Died 18 November 1962 (aged 77)
Copenhagen, Denmark

Nationality Danish
Fields Physics

Institutions University of Copenhagen
University of Cambridge
University of Manchester

Alma mater
University of Copenhagen

Doctoral advisor
Christian Christiansen

Other academic advisors J. J. Thomson
Ernest Rutherford

Doctoral students Hendrik Anthony Kramers

Known for Copenhagen interpretation
Complementarity
Bohr model
Sommerfeld–Bohr theory
BKS theory
Bohr-Einstein debates
Bohr magneton

Influences Ernest Rutherford

Influenced Werner Heisenberg
Wolfgang Pauli
Paul Dirac
Lise Meitner
Max Delbrück
and many others
Notable awards Nobel Prize in Physics (1922)
Franklin Medal (1929)

Signature


Notes
Harald Bohr is his younger brother, and Aage Bohr is his son.

Niels Henrik David Bohr (Danish pronunciation: [nels ˈboɐ̯ˀ]; 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962) was a Danish physicist who made fundamental contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum mechanics, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr mentored and collaborated with many of the top physicists of the century at his institute in Copenhagen. He was part of a team of physicists working on the Manhattan Project. Bohr married Margrethe Nørlund in 1912, and one of their sons, Aage Bohr, grew up to be an important physicist who in 1975 also received the Nobel prize. Bohr has been described as one of the most influential scientists of the 20th century.[1]
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Biography
o 1.1 Early years
o 1.2 Physics
o 1.3 Manhattan Project
o 1.4 Later years
• 2 Contributions to Physics and Chemistry
• 3 Political activity
o 3.1 Denmark during World War II
o 3.2 Nuclear weapons
o 3.3 Open World
• 4 Bohr and Heisenberg
o 4.1 Relationship
o 4.2 Speculation
• 5 Kierkegaard's influence on Bohr
• 6 Legacy
• 7 Reference notes
• 8 Bibliography
o 8.1 Books cited
o 8.2 Further reading
o 8.3 Political sources
• 9 See also
• 10 External links

[edit] Biography
[edit] Early years
Bohr was born in Copenhagen, Denmark, in 1885. His father, Christian Bohr, was professor of physiology at the University of Copenhagen (it is his name which is given to the Bohr shift or Bohr effect), while his mother, Ellen Adler Bohr, came from a wealthy Jewish family prominent in Danish banking and parliamentary circles. His brother was Harald Bohr, a mathematician and Olympic footballer who played on the Danish national team. Niels Bohr was a passionate footballer as well, and the two brothers played a number of matches for the Copenhagen-based Akademisk Boldklub, with Niels in goal.[2][3]
In 1903 Bohr enrolled as an undergraduate at Copenhagen University, initially studying philosophy and mathematics. In 1905, prompted by a gold medal competition sponsored by the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, he conducted a series of experiments to examine the properties of surface tension, using his father's laboratory in the university, familiar to him from assisting there since childhood. His essay won the prize, and it was this success that decided Bohr to abandon philosophy and adopt physics.[4] He continued as a graduate student at the University of Copenhagen, under the physicist Christian Christiansen, receiving his doctorate in 1911.
As a post-doctoral student, Bohr first conducted experiments under J. J. Thomson, of Trinity College, Cambridge and Cavendish Laboratory. In 1912 he met and later joined Ernest Rutherford at Manchester University, where on and off he spent four fruitful years in association with the older physics professor. In 1916, Bohr returned permanently to the University of Copenhagen, where he was appointed to the Chair of Theoretical Physics, a position created especially for him. In 1918 he began efforts to establish the University Institute of Theoretical Physics, which he later directed.
Earlier in 1910 Bohr had met Margrethe Nørlund; they were married in Copenhagen in 1912.[5] Of their six sons, the oldest died in a tragic boating accident and another died from childhood meningitis. The others went on to lead successful lives, including Aage Bohr, who became a very successful physicist and, like his father, won a Nobel Prize in physics, in 1975.
[edit] Physics
In 1922, Bohr was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics "for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them."[6] The award recognized his early leading work in the emerging field of Quantum Mechanics.


Niels Bohr as a young man. Exact date of photo unknown.
While at Manchester University, Bohr had adapted Rutherford's nuclear structure to Max Planck's quantum theory and so obtained a model of atomic structure which, with later improvements--mainly as a result of Heisenberg's concepts, remains valid to this day. Bohr published his model of atomic structure in 1913.[7] Here he introduced the theory of electrons traveling in orbits around the atom's nucleus, the chemical properties of each element being largely determined by the number of electrons in the outer orbits of its atoms.[8] Bohr also introduced the idea that an electron could drop from a higher-energy orbit to a lower one, in the process emitting a photon (light quantum) of discrete energy. This became a basis for quantum theory.[9]
Among the international community of nuclear physicists, Bohr came to play the role of convener of discussion groups and lectures, as well as being a mentor and an advisor. With the assistance of the Danish government and the Carlsberg Foundation, he succeeded in founding the Institute of Theoretical Physics in 1921, of which he became director.[10] Bohr's institute served as a focal point for researchers into Quantum Mechanics and related subjects in the 1920s and '30s, when most of the world's best known theoretical physicists spent some time in his company. Bohr became widely appreciated as their congenial host and eminent colleague, both at the Institute and at the Foundation's mansion in Carlsberg, where he and his family resided after 1932.[11]


Niels Bohr and Albert Einstein debating quantum theory. Picture taken by Paul Ehrenfest at his home in Leiden (December 1925).
Bohr also conceived the principle of complementarity: that items could be separately analyzed as having several contradictory properties. For example, physicists currently conclude that light behaves either as a wave or a stream of particles depending on the experimental framework – two apparently mutually exclusive properties – on the basis of this principle.[12] Bohr found philosophical applications for this daring principle.[specify] Albert Einstein much preferred the determinism of classical physics over the probabilistic new quantum physics (to which among many others Einstein himself had 'unwittingly' contributed). Philosophical issues that arose from the novel aspects of Quantum Mechanics became widely celebrated subjects of discussion. Einstein and Bohr had good-natured arguments over such issues throughout their lives.[13] See article Bohr–Einstein debates.
Werner Heisenberg worked as an assistant to Bohr and university lecturer in Copenhagen from 1926 to 1927. It was in Copenhagen, in 1927, that Heisenberg developed his uncertainty principle, while working on the mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics. Heisenberg later became head of the German nuclear energy project. In April of 1940, early in World War II, Germany invaded and occupied Denmark. In September of 1941, Bohr was visited by Heisenberg in Copenhagen.[14] See section below.
[edit] Manhattan Project
In September of 1943, reliable word reached Bohr about his imminent arrest by the German police; the Danish resistence managed to quickly help Bohr and his wife escape by sea to Sweden. Soon after, Bohr was flown in a military aircraft to Britain. There he was introduced to the then-secret atomic bomb project (see Political Activities section below for greater detail). Eventually he was directed to the project's principal location in the Unitied States of America.[15]
Bohr worked on the Manhattan Project at the top-secret Los Alamos laboratory in New Mexico, where he was known by the name of Nicholas Baker for security reasons.[16] His role on the project was as the knowledgeable consultant or "father confessor". He often expressed social concern about such weaponry and an eventual nuclear arms race, and is quoted as saying, "That is why I went to America. They didn't need my help in making the atom bomb."[17]
Bohr believed that atomic secrets should be shared by the international scientific community. After meeting with Bohr, J. Robert Oppenheimer suggested that Bohr visit President Franklin D. Roosevelt to convince him that the Manhattan Project should be shared with the Russians in the hope of speeding up its results. Roosevelt suggested that Bohr return to the United Kingdom to try to win British approval. Winston Churchill disagreed with the idea of openness towards the Russians to the point that he wrote in a letter: "It seems to me Bohr ought to be confined or at any rate made to see that he is very near the edge of mortal crimes."[18]


Coat of arms
[edit] Later years
Following the war Bohr returned to Copenhagen. He continued to advocate the peaceful use of nuclear energy. When awarded the Order of the Elephant by the Danish government, he designed his own coat of arms which featured a taijitu (symbol of yin and yang) and the motto in Latin: contraria sunt complementa: "opposites are complementary".[19] He died in Copenhagen in 1962 of heart failure.[20] He is buried in the Assistens Kirkegård in the Nørrebro section of Copenhagen.
[edit] Contributions to Physics and Chemistry
• The Bohr model of the atom, the theory that electrons travel in discrete orbits around the atom's nucleus.
• The shell model of the atom, where the chemical properties of an element are determined by the electrons in the outermost orbit.
• The correspondence principle, the basic tool of Old quantum theory.
• The liquid drop model of the atomic nucleus.
• Identified the isotope of uranium that was responsible for slow-neutron fission – 235U.[21]
• Much work on the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics.
• The principle of complementarity: that items could be separately analyzed as having several contradictory properties.
[edit] Political activity
[edit] Denmark during World War II
As regards the Occupation of Denmark during World War II, and especially the events surrounding the Danish policy of cooperation with Nazi Germany and the treatment of Danish Jews, most Danish archives remained sealed until 1998, many remain sealed to this day, and opinions of Danish historical scholars and politicians on these dark topics remain deeply divided.[22] So too, scholarly opinions remain divided on the importance of the political activities of Niels Bohr during this period. All sources agree that almost as soon as Hitler had taken power in Germany, Bohr played an active role in rescuing Jewish physicists out of Germany, typically offering them haven in Copenhagen before they could take up permanent residence elsewhere.[a] As for Sweden during World War II and especially in the autumn of 1943, it was far from certain that they would accept Danish Jews attempting to escape Hitler's deportation order. As related by Bohr's friend Stefan Rozental[23] and the historian Richard Rhodes,[24] Bohr was immediately smuggled out of Denmark in order to secure his services for the Manhattan project. But rather than proceeding promptly to the United States, as had been planned for him, on 30 September 1943 Bohr persuaded King Gustav of Sweden to make public Sweden's willingness to provide asylum, on 2 October 1943 Swedish radio broadcast that Sweden was ready to offer asylum, and there followed quickly thereafter the mass rescue of the Danish Jews by their countrymen. Historians are divided not on Bohr's political actions in Sweden, but rather on the implications and impacts of those actions. Some argue that Bohr was among those rescued and therefore could have played no role in facilitating the mass rescue, whereas Rhodes[24] and others[a] interpret Bohr's political action in Sweden as being a decisive event without which that mass rescue could not have occurred. Whether or not the mass rescue could have happened without Bohr's political activity in Sweden, there is no doubt that he did all that he could for his countrymen.
[edit] Nuclear weapons
"Tube Alloys" was the code-name for the British nuclear weapon program. British intelligence inquired about Bohr's availability for work or insights of particular value. Bohr's reply made it clear that he could not help. This reply, like his reaction to Heisenberg, made sure that if Gestapo intercepted anything attributed to Bohr it would point to no knowledge regarding nuclear energy as it stood in 1941. This does not exclude the possibility that Bohr privately made calculations going further than his work in 1939 with Wheeler.
The allied powers learned in 1944, that Germany had no atomic weapons. Bohr hoped then that greater atomic armament could be prevented by some new international agreements, before the hellish weapons were used in the world war. He also hoped that new contacts could be established between the western and Russian nuclear scientists, as signs of cooperation between the soon-to-be victorious powers in the war. Bohr's friend Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter informed President Roosevelt about Bohr's opinions and a meeting between them was organised 26 August 1944. But President Roosevelt did not agree with Bohr.[17] The British Prime Minister Winston Churchill also refused, after a meeting with Bohr 16 May 1944. He disagreed with the idea of any openness towards the Russians to the point that he wrote in a letter: "It seems to me Bohr ought to be confined or at any rate made to see, that he is very near the edge of mortal crimes."[25]
After leaving Denmark in the dramatic day and night (October 1943) when most Jews were able to escape to Sweden due to exceptional circumstances (see Rescue of the Danish Jews), Bohr was quickly asked again to join the British effort and he was flown to the UK. He was evacuated from Stockholm in 1943 in an unarmed De Havilland Mosquito operated by British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC). Passengers on BOAC's Mosquitos were carried in an improvised cabin in the bomb bay. The flight almost ended in tragedy as Bohr did not don his oxygen equipment as instructed and passed out at high altitude. He would have died had not the pilot surmising from Bohr's lack of response to intercom communication that he had lost consciousness, descended to a lower altitude for the remainder of the flight. Bohr's comment was that he had slept like a baby for the entire flight.
As part of the UK team on "Tube Alloys" Bohr went to Los Alamos. Oppenheimer credited Bohr warmly for his guiding help during certain discussions among scientists there. Discreetly, he met President Franklin D. Roosevelt and later Winston Churchill to warn against the perilous perspectives that would follow from separate development of nuclear weapons by several powers rather than some form of controlled sharing of the knowledge, which would spread quickly in any case. Only in the 1950s, after the Soviet Union's first nuclear weapon test, was it possible to create the International Atomic Energy Agency along the lines of Bohr's suggestion.
[edit] Open World
Bohr advocated informing the Soviet authorities that the atomic bomb would soon be in use. In 1944 he obtained an audience with Winston Churchill, who became worried about whether Bohr was a security risk.[26] In 1950 he addressed an 'Open Letter' to the United Nations.[27]
[edit] Bohr and Heisenberg
[edit] Relation
Bohr and Werner Heisenberg enjoyed at first a strong relationship. It began as one between a mentor and his protégé. Bohr had become aware of Heisenberg's talent during a lecture Heisenberg gave in Göttingen in 1922. During the mid-1920s, Heisenberg worked with Bohr at the institute in Copenhagen. Heisenberg, like most of Bohr's assistants, learned Danish. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle was developed during this period, as was Bohr's complementarity principle.
During the 1930s, however, the relationship became constricted due to political developments in Germany. During the World War II, Bohr, who was of half-Jewish ancestry, remained for several years in occupied Denmark. Heisenberg in Germany had become head of the German nuclear effort. Heisenberg made a famous visit to Bohr in September 1941. During a private moment outside with Bohr, Heisenberg it seems began to address nuclear energy and morality as well as the war. Neither Bohr nor Heisenberg spoke about it in any detail and left few written records of this part of the meeting, when they were alone.[28] Bohr seems to have reacted by terminating that conversation abruptly while not giving Heisenberg hints in any direction.
While some suggest that the relationship became strained at this meeting, other evidence shows that the level of contact had been reduced considerably for some time already. Heisenberg suggested that the fracture occurred later. In correspondence to his wife, Heisenberg described the final visit of the trip: "Today I was once more, with Weizsäcker, at Bohr's. In many ways this was especially nice, the conversation revolved for a large part of the evening around purely human concerns, Bohr was reading aloud, I played a Mozart Sonata (A-Major)."[29] Ivan Supek, one of Heisenberg's students and friends, claimed that the main figure of the meeting was actually Weizsäcker who tried to persuade Bohr to mediate peace between Great Britain and Germany.[30]
[edit] Speculation
In 1957, while the author Robert Jungk was working on the book Brighter Than a Thousand Suns (see letter page 100 in this book), Heisenberg wrote to Jungk explaining that he had visited Copenhagen to communicate to Bohr the views of the German scientists, that production of an atomic weapon was possible with great efforts and this raised enormous responsibilities on the worlds scientists on either side. But Bohr was shocked by the news, that Heisenberg was involved in such studies. And the conversation went wrong because of this. The German attempts were mostly focused on energy production and Heisenberg's circle of colleagues tried probably to keep it that way.[31] Heisenberg acknowledged that his cryptic approach of the subject had so alarmed Bohr that the discussion failed. Heisenberg nuanced his claims and avoided the implication that he and his colleagues had sabotaged the bomb effort. The production of the bomb in USA showed that it craved enormous resources, which was never considered in this scale in Germany during the war.
When Bohr saw Jungk's erroneous depiction in the Danish translation of the book, he disagreed. He drafted (but never sent) a letter to Heisenberg, stating that he never understood the purpose of Heisenbergs visit. And was chocked by Heisenbergs opinion, that Germany would win the war. And atomic weapons could be decisive in a long war. Bohr had described the possibility of an atomic weapon in a lecture in England 1939.[32]
Michael Frayn's play Copenhagen (1998), which was performed in London (for five years), Copenhagen, Gothenburg, Rome, Athens, Geneva and on Broadway in New York, explores what might have happened at the 1941 meeting between Heisenberg and Bohr. Frayn points in particular to the onus of being one of the few to understand what it would mean to create a nuclear weapon.
[edit] Kierkegaard's influence on Bohr
It is generally accepted that Bohr read the 19th century Danish Christian existentialist philosopher, Søren Kierkegaard. Richard Rhodes argues in The Making of the Atomic Bomb[33] that Bohr was influenced by Kierkegaard via the philosopher Harald Høffding, who was strongly influenced by Kierkegaard and who was an old friend of Bohr's father. In 1909, Bohr sent his brother Kierkegaard's Stages on Life's Way as a birthday gift. In the enclosed letter, Bohr wrote, "It is the only thing I have to send home; but I do not believe that it would be very easy to find anything better.... I even think it is one of the most delightful things I have ever read." Bohr enjoyed Kierkegaard's language and literary style, but mentioned that he had some "disagreement with [Kierkegaard's ideas]."[34]
Given this, there has been some dispute over whether Kierkegaard influenced Bohr's philosophy and science. David Favrholdt[35] argues that Kierkegaard had minimal influence over Bohr's work, taking Bohr's statement about disagreeing with Kierkegaard at face value; while Jan Faye[36] endorses the opposing point of view by arguing that one can disagree with the content of a theory while accepting its general premises and structure.[37]
[edit] Legacy
• He was one of the founding fathers of CERN in 1954.[38]
• Received the first ever Atoms for Peace Award in 1957.
• In 1965, three years after Bohr's death, the Institute of Physics at the University of Copenhagen changed its name to the Niels Bohr Institute.
• The Bohr models semicentennial was commemorated in Denmark on 21 November 1963 with a postage stamp depicting Bohr, the hydrogen atom and the formula for the difference of any two hydrogen energy levels: .
• Bohrium (a chemical element, atomic number 107) is named in honour of Bohr.
• Hafnium, another chemical element, whose properties were predicted by Bohr, was named by him after Hafnia, Copenhagen's Latin name.
• Asteroid 3948 Bohr is named after him.
• The Centennial of Bohr's birth was commemorated in Denmark on 3 October 1985 with a postage stamp depicting Bohr with his wife Margrethe.
• In 1997 the Danish National Bank started circulating the 500-krone banknote with the portrait of Bohr smoking a pipe.[39]


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